Hydrogen Peroxide Essay Example for Free

Hydrogen Peroxide Essay The same reaction is catalysed by the  enzyme  catalase, found in the  liver, whose main function in the body is the removal of toxic byproducts ofmetabolism  and the reduction of  oxidative stress. The decomposition occurs more rapidly in  alkali, so  acid  is often added as a stabilizer. The liberation of oxygen and energy in the decomposition has dangerous side-effects. Spilling high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide on a flammable substance can cause an immediate fire, which is further fueled by the oxygen released by the decomposing hydrogen peroxide. High test peroxide, or HTP (also called high-strength peroxide) must be stored in a suitable, vented container to prevent the buildup of oxygen gas, which would otherwise lead to the eventual rupture of the container. In the presence of certain catalysts, such as  Fe2+  or  Ti3+, the decomposition may take a different path, with  free radicals  such as HO · (hydroxyl) and HOO · (hydroperoxyl) being formed. A combination of  H2O2  and  Fe2+  is known as  Fentons reagent. A common concentration for hydrogen peroxide is  20-volume, which means that, when 1 volume of hydrogen eroxide is decomposed, it produces 20 volumes of oxygen. A  20-volumeconcentration of hydrogen peroxide is equivalent to 1. 667  mol/dm3  (Molar solution) or about 6%. Redox reactions In acidic solutions,  H2O2  is one of the most powerful oxidizers known—stronger than  chlorine,  chlorine dioxide, and  potassium permanganate. Also, through catalysis,  H2O2  can be converted intohydroxyl radicals  (†¢OH), which are highly reactive. Oxidant/Reduced product| Oxidation  potential, V| Fluorine/Hydrogen fluoride| 3. 0| Ozone/Oxygen| 2. 1| Hydrogen peroxide/Water| 1. 8| Potassium permanganate/Manganese dioxide. Chlorine dioxide/HClO| 1. 5| Chlorine/Chloride| 1. 4| In aqueous solutions, hydrogen peroxide can oxidize or reduce a variety of inorganic ions. When it acts as a reducing agent,  oxygen  gas is also produced. In  acidic  solutions  Fe2+  is oxidized to  Fe3+  (hydrogen peroxide acting as an oxidizing agent), 2  Fe2+(aq) +  H2O2  + 2  H+(aq) ; 2  Fe3+(aq) + 2H2O(l) and  sulfite  (SO2? 3) is oxidized to  sulfate  (SO2? 4). However,  potassium permanganate  is reduced to  Mn2+  by acidic  H2O2. Under  alkaline  conditions, however, some of these reactions reverse; for example,  Mn2+  is oxidized to  Mn4+  (as  MnO2). Other examples of hydrogen peroxides action as a reducing agent are reaction with  sodium hypochlorite  or  potassium permanganate, which is a convenient method for preparing  oxygen  in the laboratory. NaOCl +  H2O2  Ã‚  O2  + NaCl +  H2O 2  KMnO4  + 3  H2O2   2  MnO2  + 2 KOH + 2  H2O  + 3  O2 Hydrogen peroxide is frequently used as an  oxidizing agent  in organic chemistry. One application is for the oxidation of  thioethers  to  sulfoxides. For example,  methyl phenyl sulfidecan be readily oxidized in high yield to  methyl phenyl sulfoxide: Ph? S? CH3  +  H2O2   Ph? S(O)? CH3  +  H2O Alkaline hydrogen peroxide is used for  epoxidation  of electron-deficient alkenes such as  acrylic acids, and also for oxidation of  alkylboranes  to  alcohols, the second step of  hydroboration-oxidation. Formation of peroxide compounds Hydrogen peroxide is a weak acid, and it can form  hydroperoxide  or  peroxide  salts  or derivatives of many metals. For example, on addition to an aqueous solution of  chromic acid  (CrO3) or acidic solutions of dichromate salts, it will form an unstable blue peroxide CrO(O2)2. In aqueous solution it rapidly decomposes to form oxygen gas and chromium salts. It can also produce peroxoanions by reaction with  anions; for example, reaction with  borax  leads to  sodium perborate, a bleach used in laundry detergents: Na2B4O7  + 4  H2O2  + 2 NaOH 2  Na2B2O4(OH)4  +  H2O H2O2  converts  carboxylic acids  (RCOOH) into peroxy acids (RCOOOH), which are themselves used as oxidizing agents. Hydrogen peroxide reacts with  acetone  to form  acetone peroxide, and it interacts with  ozone  to form  hydrogen trioxide, also known as  trioxidane. Reaction with  urea  produces  carbamide peroxide, used for whitening teeth. An acid-base adduct with  triphenylphosphine oxide  is a useful carrier for  H2O2  in some reactions. Alkalinity Hydrogen peroxide can still form adducts with very strong acids. The  superacid  HF/SbF5  forms unstable compounds containing the  [H3O2]+  ion. Domestic uses * Diluted  H2O2  (between 3% and 8%) is used to bleach human  hair  when mixed with  ammonium hydroxide, hence the phrase peroxide blonde. * It is absorbed by  skin  upon contact and creates a local skin  capillary  embolism  that appears as a temporary whitening of the skin. * It is used to whiten  bones  that are to be put on display. 3%  H2O2  is effective at treating fresh (red) blood-stains in clothing and on other items. It must be applied to clothing before blood stains can be accidentally set with heated water. Cold water and soap are then used to remove the peroxide treated  blood. Some horticulturalists and users of  hydroponics  advocate the use of weak hydrogen peroxide solution in watering solutions. Its spontaneous decomposition releases oxygen that enhances a plants root development and helps to treat  root rot  (cellular root death due to lack of oxygen) and a variety of other pests. Laboratory tests conducted by fish culturists in recent years have demonstrated that common household hydrogen peroxide can be used safely to provide oxygen for small fish. Hydrogen peroxide releases oxygen by decomposition when it is exposed to  catalysts  such as  manganese dioxide. * Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizer effective in controlling sulfide and organic-related odors in wastewater collection and treatment systems. It is typically applied to a wastewater system where there is a retention time of 30 minutes to 5 hours before hydrogen sulfide is released.

Terror Human Rights

Terror Human Rights Has the â€Å"war on terror† enhanced or harmed human rights? In the words of Howard Zinn, historian, playwright, social activist: How can you make a war on terror if war itself is terrorism? The war on or against terrorism continues to wage as we talk about it and attempt to find solutions to the looming danger that threatens our civilization in itself. The war on terror has been used as a weapon by governments around the world to achieve selfish motives, to satisfy egos and secure futures. There is no tangible enemy, and it is unlikely that international terrorism can be brought to an end by means of war. Terrorism continues to be an unknown enemy, without a clear identity and that is why military invasion like the ones repeatedly brought about by United States on already ravaged countries is not a solution. Terrorism is a theatre where the acts of terror attract the attention of the public in a dramatic manner creating a sense of shock, awe and unprecedented grief. However it must be remembered that no war is correct, no war is worth the loss of our morals as human beings. In the present article, the argument that is to be presented is that the so called ‘war on terror has harmed the human rights of many all over the world. The phrase has been used to deprive millions of people of their dignity, assets and life itself. The article attempts to understand the question of how many rights can be given up for security of the nations that claim to have been attacked and have hence waged the war on terror. Terrorism in the modern sense is violence or other harmful acts committed (or threatened) against civilians for political or other ideological goals. Most definitions of terrorism include only those acts which are intended to create fear or ‘terror, are perpetrated for an ideological goal as opposed to a lone attack), and deliberately target or disregard the safety of non combatants. Any form of military action can be termed terrorism. The famous quote that, â€Å"One mans terrorist is another mans freedom fighter†, has been the basis of attempts to justify revolutionary movements which have been termed as acts of terror. It was during the French Revolution that the words terrorist and terrorism became popular. The word terrorism began in 1795 during the reign of terror by the revolutionary government during the French Revolution. Terrorist acts were committed in order to gain attention of the world. For example, in the Munich Olympics in 1972, 11 Israelis were killed by the Black September Organisation and even though the eleven killed were the immediate sufferers the true effect was felt by nearly 1 billion people watching the news in the world. Terror has been continuing over the ages in one form or another. What is seen as a crime by some is the act of protection of ones own identity and culture by the other. In this sense, the most recent event that completely stunned the world was the bombing of the two world trade centre towers on September 11, 2001. The world watched with disbelief as United States faced attack on its own soil. What followed and continues is an example of the â€Å"war on terror†, as specified and focused on by George Bush, President, United States of America. The use of the word war here is not only misleading but regressive. According to the US understanding, terrorism includes only the anti state violence acts like September 11, 2001. The question here that can be put forward is then what about state violence, what about the use of excess police force, the use of military/ paramilitary in an indiscriminate manner. The morning of September 11, 2001, was a day that will remain etched in our minds forever as the event killed 2973 innocent people whose human right to life had been curtailed. However the world must remember what followed and continues as you read this is also gross violation of human rights. In an attempt to fight the terror which caused September 11, United States government has been carrying out massacres on innocent civilians in both Afghanistan and Iraq. In attempting to find the enemy, and eradicate it, the US policies and arbitrary use of military force has not only killed many more people but has resulted in some of the worst human rights violations witnessed in human history. The immediate effect of September 11 was the widespread discrimination against Islamic Muslims especially young males. The world has remained a silent spectator to the steps taken by US which has used providing long denied â€Å"freedom† to civilians in Iraq and Afghanistan as an excuse to enter these countries. The reason provided for the invasion has been the emancipation or the upliftment of the people in these two countries. However, instead of upliftment these countries have been ravaged of all resources and are continued to be plundered. Human rights have become a latter issue with people attempting to stay alive amongst continuous bombings and military invasions. The world has been a silent spectator for nearly five years after the falling of the two towers to United States government that has been taking steps, using force to achieve illusioned motives and actions completely opposed to the basis of International Law. The right to fair trial is a basic human right, constructed to protect individuals from restriction or deprivation of basic rights and freedoms such as right to life and l iberty. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides for this right in Article 10. Along with this the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) provides for the right to fair trial in Article 14. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), also includes the right to be free from arbitrary arrest and detention(Article 9), the right to be present at trial(Article 21), the right to be free from torture(Article 7) and the right to appeal(Article 26). The four Geneva Conventions of 1949, which protect civilian populations and those fighting in hostilities, principally during international armed conflicts but also during internal conflicts such as civil wars, contain provisions to ensure a fair trial. However legitimizing of the Patriot Act puts all this in a gaping question. This act is squarely against various rights protected and guaranteed by the Constitution of United States and various international documents such like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Convention against torture and All forms of Racial Discrimination. The Patriot Act allows non- citizens to be detained without charge without a right to fair trial and be held in prison indefinitely if convicted. This Act also allows the government in United States to look into details of the lives of the citizens in the country without prior permission. This includes, monitoring of emails, wiretapping, keeping an eye on property acquisitions, educational as well as financial records. This Act is clearly against the right to privacy and allows the government to arbitrarily interfere. The United States governments acceptance to the Military Commissions Act can be co nsidered a major step towards human rights violation in the ongoing â€Å"war on terror†. Acceptance of such documents which allow the use of uncensored force are opposed to the basic idea of International Law. Under the rubric of the â€Å"war on terror†, the United States government has detained thousands of people in their own territory and around the world. A majority of the detainees are denied access to a fair trial and are held without a charge. There is a clear violation of the basic fundamental right to due process, which is a clear right guaranteed by the US Constitution. Guantanamo Bay and Abu Ghraib tell a story of torture so evil that it shakes the foundation of human rights. There have been revelations of brutality in these prisons in the form of beatings, sexual humiliation and methods of torture which are almost surreal to a normal person. Guantanamo Bay, the famous prison outside territories of United States has given the world pictures of the torture within the â€Å"war on terror†. It has been and continues to be a lawless place. The circumstantial evidence of torture at Guantanamo Bay is cogent and well documented. The most discouraging revelation is the fact that the methods of torture were encouraged and propagated by the Military Commission which provided acceptance to such inhuman treatment. Though the detention at the Guantanamo Bay prison is clearly against the articles of the Geneva Conventions, and particularly Article 75 of the First Protocol Additional to the Geneva Convention of 1977 which states that coercing a prisoner to confess in unlawful, the defence of United States government to the detention remains that the definition of prisoners in Guantanamo Bay includes enemy combatants and not prisoners of war; hence the Geneva Convention does not apply. It is clear that Guantanamo was chosen as a base for torture so as to hold detainees beyond the reach of the United States as well as International Law, which clearly states that the use of torture and inhuman or degrading treatment is prohibited. No matter how one defines the prisoners at Guantanamo Bay, the fact underlying the whole scenario remains that sadism and humiliation are at work in every cell in this prison by one of the strongest governments in the world. Guantanamo Bay has become one of the strongest symbols of human rights abuse carried out in a planned manner by the United States government, and five years of such lawlessness and killing is too long a time to go unstopped. President Bush indeed confirmed the fact that there are secret prisons of the CIA in various countries away from the United States soil. The clear indication here is that somehow US wants to take its suspects beyond the reach of their own law and treat them in an inhuman manner. Another important thing to note here is that there are countries all over the world which have allowed United States to create such torture prisons on their own soil. Not only the United States but many countries in the world are losing sight of the basic human right to life, dignity and respect in the ongoing â€Å"war on terror†. United States Government also has policies under which individuals are transported to other countries for the purpose of interrogation. Among these countries are countries with records of torture. This policy is known as the policy of â€Å"extraordinary rendition† of detainees for the purpose of gathering information using forms of torture. â€Å"Extraordinary Rendition† is the illegal practice of abducting foreign nationals for detention and interrogation in secret overseas prisons. Recent accounts of rendition have a chilling pattern- black clad masked men grab foreign nationals, strip them, beat them and take them to the so called â€Å"black site† prisons, where these people are subjected to unspeakable horrors including no sleep, water boarding, beatings, isolation and mental torture. This often leads to false confessions. After the September 11 attacks, extraordinary renditions clearly involve kidnapping of persons the United States suspects to be a part o f the Al Qaeda network and transporting them to countries where torture is used to derive information on how to bring the â€Å"war on terror† to a successful end. On 18th December 2001, CIA operatives kidnapped two Egyptians, Ahmed Agiza and Muhammed al-Zery, who had sought asylum in Sweden. They were seized and conveyed by a US government-leased private jet to Egypt where both were subjected to, amongst other things, the use of electrodes to sensitive parts of the body. It transpired that the Swedish government cooperated after being assured that the exiles would not be tortured. Seymour Hersh in his book Chain of Command: the road from 9/11 to Abu Ghraib has revealed that the CIA confessed to Congress that before 2001 it there were about 70 extraordinary renditions, which were assigned the status of being absolutely urgent. However since 9/11 the Bush Government has refused to even discuss the forced return of such prisoners. The worldwide flow of prisoners in relation to the â€Å"war on terror† continues to grow and prisoners have been kidnapped and tortured not only from the war zones but also from contries like Sudan, Croatia, Albania, Malaysia and Pakistan. If the prisons of Abu Ghraib and Guantanamo Bay represent what democracy means to countries like Iraq then the whole credibility of American leadership is under question. Across the country and the world racial discrimination has been faced by many, particularly the Muslims. Across United States, after the attacks on 9/11 individuals of Middle Eastern descent and racial minorities became targets of vicious racial discrimination. Thousands of Islamic men were taken into custody without a right to fair trial. Deportation of thousands of people belonging to religious minorities has taken place without any access to judiciary. Persons suspected of any connection with terrorist organizations have been detained without any notification to families for unspecified amount of time. The question that arises here is that is President Bush truly above the law, as he is authorizing torture on these thousands of detained individuals on the basis of suspicion, denying them the basic human rights. A sign of the fact that Bush considers himself above the International Law is the instance on December 5th 2007, when the US Supreme Court heard administration lawyers defe nd the indefensible: that the President can ignore the writ of Habeaus Corpus and hold people indefinitely, without charge and without question. The hearing challenges the judicial system of United States, and attempts to say that fear not freedom is guiding the judiciary in the US. This in itself questions the basic values of truth, justice and liberty which are the cornerstones of a just society. Article 3 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights clearly states that, â€Å"Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.† This read along with Article 9(1) of the ICCPR provides everyone with a basic guarantee of protection of the right against arbitrary arrest and detention, a clause that United States government has been flouting for years now. International standards clearly talk about not only the grounds of arrest not being arbitrary but also specify that the arrest should be on definite grounds and procedures established by law. There is a clear fallacy concerning liberty and security. Today we face a trade off between national security which is pitted against civil liberties and human rights. The most important question as posed by David Luban in his article on eight fallacies about liberty and security is â€Å"How many of your ‘own rights are you willing to sacrifice for added security?† However this trade off seems rather dishear tening as there is no definite way off knowing how much added security is a person to gain at the loss of liberties. The future of human rights as minute increments for security looks bleak as there is a growing belief that basic rights of citizens ought to be abandoned or at least suspended in order to deal with the growing threat of terrorism. This means that if two or more people endanger property in any manner they can be termed a ‘terrorist organization by the Secretary of the State, individuals may be put behind bars for thinking of pro Islamic virtues, or teachers is school would be stripped of their headscarves as this a threat to security but not a threat to their religious way of life. In the words of Amnesty International, attacks by armed groups reached new levels of brutality and intensity in 2005 but insisted that the perpetrators should be brought to justice through fair trial, not torture or secret detention. The â€Å"war on terror† was failing, the report claimed, and would continue to fail â€Å"unless human rights and human security are given precedence over narrow security interests.† Civil liberties as we have known them are under severe attack now. One belief that threatens them is that the so called â€Å"clash of civilizations† has threatened the integrity of a nation to such an extent that exceptional and unprecedented actions are required to deal with the problem and this includes putting civil liberties at stake for national security. In todays world there are examples that governments world over cannot even provide the rudiments of human security in war torn areas like Sudan and Darfur to people facing hardships at the indigenous levels and to the one billion people who survive with less than one dollar a day. If security of life cannot be provided at such basic levels, even a discussion to gain security in return of liberties being suppressed seems like a lost cause. The question that can be asked is â€Å"Has the era of human rights come and gone?†, the answer to which may be that the era hasnt gone but human rights are challenged in order to respond to the concerns over human security in the world today. Maybe the restrictions on liberty are justified but only to the extent of preserving liberty itself and not for attaining order or security, which is what the world powers seem to be doing in the ongoing war on terror, with illegal deportations, use of torture and invading all boundaries of privacy of citizens; acts that are opposed to the basic beliefs of liberty and security to human beings. Is it correct to assume guilt, to frame people on beliefs of suspicion and to torture them indefinitely? In the case of Rasul v Bush, the US courts held that the detainees in Guantanamo Bay have a right to be heard. Everyone has a right to fair trial, a right to live with dignity and respect, with protection of privacy and related aspects of human rights. Addressing a Counter Terrorism Committee, the late High Commissioner for Human Rights Sergio Vieira de Mello said that: â€Å"[Such] measures must be taken in transparency, they must be of short duration and must respect the fundamental non- derogable rights embodied in our human rights norms. They must take place within the framework of the law. Without that, the terrorists will ultimately win and we will ultimately lose- as we would have allowed them to destroy the very foundation of our modern human civilization.† In conclusion as stated by the 9/11 Commission Report (2004:395), it can be said that: â€Å"We must find ways of reconciling security with liberty, since the success of one helps the other. The choice between security and liberty is a false choice†¦ our history has shown us that insecurity threatens liberty. Yet if liberties are curtailed, we lose the values that we are struggling to defend.†

Mona Lisa By Leonardo Da Vinci Humanism

Mona Lisa By Leonardo Da Vinci Humanism The transition movement that took place between the 14th and 17th century in Italy is known as the Renaissance time or by definition rebirth. The philosophy that took place in the period is one of the humanism or the focus on the human being. One of the master artists of this time is Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) and one of the paintings that best represents the philosophy and art of this period is the Mona Lisa. The philosophy of humanism brought on a time where the focus was on the human being. The previous philosophy of the medieval time was more focused on biblical motivation, whereas humanism was not. Humanism stood for the; the emergence of the individual figure, in place of stereotyped or symbolic figure, greater realism and consequent attention to detail, as reflected in the development of linear perspective and increased realism of human faces and bodies (High Renaissance Art. (n.d)). The artist of the Renaissance time kept up with the spirit of humanism by portraying lifelike human forms with the realistic clothing, and expression and correct proportion. A new three-dimensional form was created with new techniques. The natural landscape began to appear as the background as a transition from the figures of heaven against a gold background. Realism and idealism are other concepts that were used in the Renaissance time and one could say that Leonardo Da Vinci mastered them. Realism or portraying subjects as they really were accomplished by: forms, colors, proportions, lights and shade effects, spatial harmony and composition. Leonardos background in science, drafting, sculpting and architecture all helped in every portion of his painting of the Mona Lisa (The Mona Lisa, (n.d.)). Idealism was the idea of portraying subjects, as they should be. The Mona Lisa was a painting that Leonardo Da Vinci was working on in between the years of 1503-1506; some believe the painting was still never finished by his death in 1519. The Mona Lisa clearly represents the philosophy of the humanism by representing the focus of the human being and realism. It also shows nature as shown in the background behind the figure in the painting. The main focus of the Mona Lisa falls actually on the person in the picture. In previous medieval art the figures in the portrait were pictured in profiles and were stiff. Mona Lisa is painted in a relaxed three-quarter pose and cropped in contrast to the norm of full-length portraits. Whereas pictures previously had the figure in the painting adorned with jewels and decorations the Mona Lisa is simple and free of any jewelry. The womans hair is smooth and only has a simple veil (which may be a symbol of chastity); her hands are relaxed and free of bracelets and rings. Only the folds of her robe or dress are present (Mona Lisa, painted from 1503-1507, (n.d.)) as well as the lace-topped dress she is wearing. The Mona Lisas main focus is on the face of the painting. The techniques of chiaroscuro, using lights and darks and sfumato (blending one tone to another) or the illusion of corners that allows the imagination to see the area in a different way, was introduced and used by Da Vinci in his painting (Mona Lisa painted from 1503-1507, (n.d.)). These techniques, that were achieved by using oil paints, were used on the face and the hands to make the person appear to be more real and almost as if she has movement. The smile that is so famous and adds to the mystery of her mood is also achieved by these techniques. While some viewers see the woman smiling others see her without a smile. The pyramid design, which was commonly used, also helps the viewer to focus on the women. It is believed that the pyramid gives a representation of giving tribute to the father, the son and the Holy Spirit. Mona Lisas pose is that of a pyramid shape with her head, shoulders and hands (Mona Lisa, La Giaconda, (n.d.)). There is also a glow on the face, neck and hands that puts an emphasis on those. Leonardo painted a true representation of the women of the time. The womans face is free of facial hair including her eyebrows. At this time it was common for women of the time to pluck their eyebrows because some feel they were unsightly. When Leonarod did this it makes the person very real (Mona Lisa, La Giaconda, (n.d.). The woman seems to be seated in a chair on some sort of balcony. The pillars to the side of the balcony almost form a frame to the figure behind the woman is a landscaped background. The figure in the painting is emphasized by the light and dark tones of the wardrobe as well as the background. The face and body have lighter tones on them with smooth lines; gone are the days of outlined figures. The background does not reflect heaven or spiritual symbols but that of nature, which was another emphasis of the time. The curves in the background with the paths, rivers and mountains are a small reflection of the curves in her hair and clothes. It is believed that Da Vinci was working on some of his finest sketches of plant life and nature (Mona Lisa, painted from 1503-1507, (n.d.)), when he worked on the painting. Some hints of yellow and gold are used in the winding paths behind the figure. The landscape in the background showing mountains, trees and water are painted in cooler blues and greens. There is a sense of depth and form because the picture becomes hazier as the landscape progresses backwards. Also, with this technique, the figure in the painting appears closer to the viewer and puts more emphasis on her because of the scenery. Leonardo Da Vinci may be considered one of the greatest artists of all times. Leonardo was a true master of the Renaissance time reflecting the philosophy of the time that being humanism and the emphasis of the human being. The Mona Lisa is a painting that shows such a philosophy of humanism. With the colors used, the shading and blending of the paints, Da Vinci could make the viewer focus on the human. The woman is very simple with no elaborate clothes or jewelry to take away from her, with a reserved posture. The background is that of nature, which another focus of the time was. The landscape showing depth helps the viewer focus on the women. The Mona Lisa is a true masterpiece of the Renaissance time. With Leonardo Da Vincis use of his techniques of sfumato and chiaroscuro he was able to make his figure of the women truly reflect the philosophies of the time. Mona Lisa appears to be a real woman with both depth and movement.

Essay --

The idea of justice although obvious for philosophers like Locke, Rousseau, and John Rawls, proves itself to be a labyrinthine issue for Americans; nevertheless, ones thing is clear: the people are guaranteed the ability to pursue happiness. Sometimes searching for American equity juxtaposes the American Dream to the pursuit of happiness with a paralytic justice. However, justice in all forms plays a part through the governments duty; who does the government serve and protect? Despite this, opportunity continues to play a major role in correlation to the hopes and aspirations of many Americans; what freedoms to pursue happiness would Americans receive if they were striped of their rights? Justice is a means to an end-it's something done to achieve something else. It's the search for equal opportunity and protection of one's rights under the law. So then what's the destination of justice? For most people there is no destination but merely a trail or pursuit if you will. A pursuit of happiness. Happiness is a state of well being and contentment that is received alongside the individual, the community, and society. Individual justice can be seen in protecting one's rights from being infringed upon. In the case of Brown vs. EMA (2010), several parents pushed for the banning of selling violent video games to their minors. Playing violent video games is not illegal nor unconstitutional so then why should there be a fine for the sellers in correlation with every infraction? Why should the decision of one parent's lack to monitor and parent their child affect every single parent in the nation? In this case, most Americans saw their rights being infringed upon with a crippled form of justice. Individual justice is seen... ...ciety's duty to aid it's individuals and communities, who follow the law, in their quest for merriment. When man disavows opportunity cost and its intergenerational implications, they constrict the range of options available to current and future generations. In fact, the rights to liberty and the pursuit of happiness now become infringed. This becomes the duty of the sovereign: to promote equal terms to each individual within a community or more generally speaking, society. Without the balance of power offered between the government and the people, there would be no state of well being and contentment. Individual justice would be infringed through the neglect of one's rights, communal justice would't exist because there wouldn't be equal opportunity for man to thrive, and societal equality wouldn't be permitted because no one would be equal under the law.

Cultural theory and the meanings of money :: Business and Management Studies

Cultural theory and the meanings of money Couples and their money: theory and practice in personal finances Four perspectives draw on: * Economics and rational choice theory * Social structural approaches * Psychological approaches * Cultural theory and the meanings of money. According to classical economic theory money has four main functions: †¢it is a medium of exchange, †¢a store of value, †¢a unit of account, †¢a standard of deferred payment. Perspectives within economic theory relevant to personal finances: †¢fungibility This notion is standard in classical economic theory and means that money is considered to be neutral and interchangeable, so that any unit of wealth is substitutable for any other (McCloskey, 1987). †¢rational choice theory This assumes that people make reasoned choices in order to maximise their overall welfare or utility. Rational choice theory lays stress on the importance of information in facilitating the efficient working of markets and of consumer choice. Daniel: I have a high interest account with First Direct as well. And then I have another savings account which is slightly lower interest. The high interest savings account has a penalty on withdrawals, so I keep a sum of money in there stable which I don’t draw on. If I have extra spending, or I need to top up my current account in case I’m going overdrawn, that comes from the third, lower interest account which I keep for small amounts. When I have a surplus at the end of the month in my current account I transfer across to the high interest account as much as I can. Daniel’s economic rationality extended to credit cards and Air Miles. He explained about his American Express Gold Card: I use that for my purchases because I get Air Miles on that, so all my purchases I get Air Miles and I transfer that to my various Air Miles accounts. I originally got a Gold Card because they did a special offer, had one free for a year, and so I gave up after a year. Said ‘No thank you. I don’t want to pay for a card’. Oh well, another card arrives free for a year, so I said, ‘Fine’. Pahl, J. (2001) ‘Couples and their money: theory and practice in personal finances’, in R. Sykes, C.Bochel and N. R. Ellison, Social Policy Review 13, Policy Press Bristol. Rosie: If I’ve got to have dealings with them for money, I like to know that it’s only a certain number of hours†¦ I like restrictions of banking hours; I do quite like that. I’m old fashioned, completely opposite to Daniel. If he sees that something is wrong with one of

Reflection on Placebo Effect Essay

Does a Supportive Patient-Therapist Relationship Enhance Clinical Improvement? Kaptchuk (2008), Components of Placebo Effect: Randomised Controlled Trial in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome. (PRO) Argument 1: Kaptchuk (2008) suggested that placebo effects (non-specific effects) include three components: a patient’s response to observation and assessment, the patient’s response to the administration of placebo treatment, and the patient’s response to the patient-practitioner interaction. Kaptchuk (2008) found that the symptoms of IBS patients in the condition with placebo treatment and supportive patient-therapist relationship ameliorated the most across all measures compared to patients with having only observation and the patients with only placebo treatment. Thus he claimed that a supportive patient-therapist relationship is the most potent component of placebo effects. Argument 2: After three and six weeks, only in the condition with placebo treatment and supportive patient-therapist relationship, the symptom severity score of 60% patients decreased 50. Also Kaptchuk (2008) found that after six weeks, the change in life quality of patient in condition with only observation and the life quality of patient in condition with placebo treatment was similar, but the life quality change of patient with placebo treatment and supportive patient-therapist relationship was observable. So Kaptchuk (2008) suggested that a supportive patient-therapist relationship can enhance clinical improvement. Argument 3: Kaptchuk (2008) also compared these IBS patients to the patients who received IBS drug treatment. He found that the patients with placebo treatment and supportive relationship had comparable symptom relief as those who with drug treatment. His finding was only applied to IBS patients with supportive patient-therapist relationship, thus he indicated that a supportive patient-therapist relationship could enhance the efficiency of clinical treatment. Critique (or Strength): The result of the study done by Kaptchuk (2008) clearly demonstrated the importance of supportive patient-therapist relationship in medical treatment. However, Kaptchuk conducted the study on IBS patients, because he believed that placebo effects are most likely to be demonstrable in disorders defined by subjective symptoms. As Kaptchuk (2008) stated in limitation that he did not know if his finding could be applied to other illnesses, I also think that if Kaptchuk conducted his study on patients with the disease that has external causes, the results will be more convincing. One of important causes of IBS is stress, a subjective etiology. Thus a supportive patient-therapist relationship may have greater influence on IBS patient than the patient with other diseases, like flu.

Five Forces Analysis: Adidas

Five Forces Analysis Intensity of Competitive Rivalry There are several firms fiercely competing Adidas for more market share, including Nike, Puma, Reebok and Umbro to name a few. Adidas must ensure that their goods are of a high quality and at a reasonable price in order to keep their market share in this industry. Intensity in this industry is high as there are a large number of organisations with similar products all trying to gain market share. Threat of Entry to the Industry by New CompetitorsThere isn’t very much of a threat of new competitors to Adidas as there are high barriers of entry to this industry, such as, high set up costs, economies of scale, legal barriers, marketing barrier and control over raw materials. This means that not many new organisations could break into this industry, as it would be very expensive to start up and run a company that could be a threat to a major brand such as Adidas. Also, Research and Development costs are to be considered, as the y would be extremely high due to the organisation not having any previous knowledge about the industry or about designing and producing the goods.Another point why it is highly unlikely that a new organisation could enter the industry and compete with Adidas is they will either have to pay out loads of money on factories and machinery for producing their goods, which could backfire if they were not to succeed, or they could try to compete without a factory or machinery for production, this wouldn’t work as the new organisation wouldn’t be able to produce enough products to compete with any leading brands such as Adidas, Nike, Puma, Reebok etc.Threat from Substitute Products or Services There is a threat to Adidas from other manufacturers’ products as there are many companies that produce football boots. However, Adidas produce football boots that have unique features, such as the rubber pads on the boots. Therefore, as Adidas’s products are unique they ha ve an edge over their competitors as non of their products have rubber pads on their boots. This will help Adidas to sell more products and ultimately put the other organisations out of business.Also, substitutes for football boots could also include footwear and sports clothes for other sports as people could take up new sports. Power of Suppliers Adidas raw materials to make football boots are not supplied by a monopoly. This gives Adidas more power to dictate the price at which they buy their raw materials, as there are a large number of competitive suppliers. Power of Buyers Adidas’s products are mainly sold in bulk to major sports outlets such as JJB Sports, JD Sports and Sports Soccer.Also, large amounts of products are sold in bulk to online stores such as Pro Direct Soccer and Sports Shoes. As Adidas rely quite heavily o these buyers they have to sell their products at relatively low prices. However, there are a small amount of customers who buy products directly from Adidas, when Adidas sell their products to one off customers they can dictate the price as Adidas don’t rely on making these sales.